English 121: Guide

Rhetoric 

DEFINITION 

Rhetoric is many things, and its definition has been changing for over 3,000 years, so it is difficult to compose a uniform or standard definition of it. Yet, the most common definition of rhetoric that you will encounter -- including in our textbook and supplemental sources -- is this: rhetoric is the art of effective communication by using a vast array of tools to affect/persuade others into an action or an attitude.   

RELEVANT POINTS   

1. Rhetoric is ubiquitous. ALL communication/texts we encounter or produce, whether it is intentional, unintentional, verbal, written, visual, or aural, is rhetorical. Therefore, it is not only the content of academic courses, but most importantly, it is a part of our everyday lives. 
2. Rhetoric is a two-way street. The critical thinking that we use in performing a rhetorical analysis of a particular communication/text lays foundation for our own communication choices and decisions to enhance its effectiveness. 
3. Rhetoric is multimodal. Most communication is multimodal because it relies on “all of the available means of persuasion,” as famously noted by Aristotle, the most famous rhetorician and the creator of the most famous definition of rhetoric.  
4. Learning rhetoric takes much practice, so only applying our knowledge to the vast array of communication/texts will help us become not only a savvy rhetorician, but also a skilled critic of rhetoric.   

Rhetorical Situation 

DEFINITION 

Rhetorical situation is everything that plays a role in shaping the rhetoric; it is the principal concept of rhetoric. In other words, rhetorical situation is everything and anything that surrounds and relates to the communication/text. Although there are many, the basic elements of a rhetorical situation are rhetor, audience, and text because all messages are communicated by someone, intended for someone, and assume a specific shape or form.  

For example, here is a basic rhetorical situation: we (the rhetor) can communicate with our body language (text) to the person sitting next to us (audience) that we are not interested in talking by simply turning our head away. Because no rhetoric can take place without these essential elements, they are usually depicted as a triangle, with each point labeled as one of the elements, and referred to as a Rhetorical Triangle.  

RELEVANT POINTS 

1. In addition to the Rhetorical Triangle, some other relevant elements of rhetorical situation are purpose, exigence, and constraints. If you search for images of the rhetorical situation, you will find images of two rhetorical triangles on top of each other but rotated enough so there are not three but six points, appearing more like a star, a rhetorical star, to accommodate the six elements, one at each point. There are even images of as many as three triangles on top of one another, all of these multiple triangles underscoring the complexity of rhetorical situation and showing a more realistic representation of how dynamic, shifting each act of communication is.  
2. No matter how many elements are identified within it, the rhetorical situation is always taking place in context; in other words, the context surrounds the rhetorical situation. The simplest way to think about context is to consider the circumstances in which the rhetor communicates to the audience: the time, the setting, the events, the people, the issues important at the time of the communication. In other words, what’s happening when the communication is being composed? 

Rhetorical Appeals 

DEFINITION 

Rhetorical appeals are the means of persuasion used by the rhetor. To be as effective in their communication as possible, rhetors rely on modes of influencing their audiences to accept their points or positions. The most compelling means of engaging and influencing the audience are the three terms we still use today, brought to us by the ancient Greek philosopher and rhetorician Aristotle:  

• Ethos, through the rhetor’s credibility 
• Pathos, through the audience’s emotions 
• Logos, through the logic of the rhetor’s text/communication  

EXAMPLE 

Although you may not realize it, you are using rhetorical appeals in your daily interactions with others. In fact, you may have grouped those around you based on how you need to address them, what it usually takes for you to convince or influence them to accept your point. For example, is there someone in your group of friends and relatives who usually responds to your points and observations with a simple, “I’ll take your word for it,” or “If you did it/tried it/have it/recommend it, then it must be good!”? Your relatives or friends (audience), base their response on your ethos. As a rhetor, you are acknowledged by them as a source of authority on the topic, someone who has credibility. On the other hand, there are likely those in your circle who never seem to have enough evidence and require a step-by-step layout of the argument before they consider accepting your point. Unlike the other group, they will not accept the statements made, just because you are the one making them. They can be convinced primarily through the logic in your points (logos). Finally, have you ever used a sad face or a tug-at-the-heartstrings story to illicit a response from your audience, such as tearfully asking your parents to buy you something, knowing that they cannot stand the sight of your tears and usually cave at the moment they see them? You are appealing to your audience’s emotions, demonstrating your use of pathos.  

RELEVANT POINTS 

1. Effective rhetoric balances the three appeals. Rhetoric relying on just one appeal may create suspicion in the audience or may turn off the audience who usually seeks one of the other three appeals to be present.  
2. Considering the three appeals individually is key to learning them and recognizing their role in particular texts; however, the rhetorical appeals overlap with one another and complement one another, rather than standing on their own. For example, if you, the rhetor, use peer-reviewed sources to support your claim, it is considered logos, since you are appealing to your audiences, need for seeing the logic and specific evidence. Moreover, it can be considered ethos because it shows you as a credible rhetor, utilizing the most appropriate sources for the information you are trying to convey.  

Topic 4: 

Rhetorical Analysis 

DEFINITION 

Rhetorical analysis represents a thorough examination of a text/communication to understand how it affects the audience. Performing a rhetorical analysis, we identify and analyze the rhetoric’s essential parts -- the rhetorical choices made by the rhetor -- such as the rhetorical appeals, rhetorical context, rhetorical situation (exigence, constraints), to show HOW he or she attempts to influence the audience to accept the message.  

Although the phrase “rhetorical analysis” may sound intimidating at first, especially when you are asked to perform one, the concept of analyzing rhetoric around you is not something you are not completing on daily basis. Many of your daily decisions are based on the assessment or analysis of the communications you encounter. For example, will you click on the emailed link with instructions to reset the password for your bank account when the message itself contains numerous spelling errors, typos, and strange sentence structure, or will you immediately recognize it as a scam and delete it? Most likely, you did not even take much time and almost instantly ignored the message because we are naturally inclined to analyze and judge the exorbitant amount of rhetoric that we are bombarded with daily. 

The rhetorical analysis for academic purposes, such as the one you will have to complete in this module is much more detailed and deliberate as the almost instantaneous assessment of a scam email and much more time consuming, but as you can see, you already possess the critical thinking skills and some experience necessary to complete it.